How does the history of Badminton show the importance of sport in international relations?

J Sports Sci Med. 2015 Sep; 14(3): 584–590.

Published online 2015 Aug 11.

Changes in the Game Characteristics of a Badminton Lucifer: A Longitudinal Report through the Olympic Game Finals Assay in Men'due south Singles

Guillaume Laffaye

^oneUR CIAMS – Motor Command and Perception Group, Sport Sciences Department, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France

Michael Phomsoupha

ⁱUR CIAMS – Motor Control and Perception Grouping, Sport Sciences Department, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay, France

Frédéric Dor

²IRMES – eleven artery du Tremblay, 75012 Paris, France

Received 2015 January 5; Accepted 2015 Jun 1.

Abstract

The goal of this study was to clarify, through a longitudinal study, the Olympic Badminton Men's singles finals from the Barcelona Games (1992) to the London Games (2012) to assess some changes of the Badminton game characteristics. Six Olympic finals have been analyzed based on the official video of the Olympic Games (OG) through the temporal structure and with a notational approach. In total, 537 rallies and 5537 strokes have been analyzed. The results prove a alter in the game's temporal construction: a significant difference in the rally time, rest time and number of shots per rally (all p<0.0001; 0.09 < η² < 0.xvi). Moreover, the shot frequency shows a 34.0% increase (p<0.000001; ηⁱⁱ = 0.17), whereas the piece of work density revealed a 58.2% subtract (from 78% to thirty.8%) as well as the effective playing fourth dimension (-34.five% from 34.7±1.4% to 22.7±i.4%). This argues for an increment in the intensity of the game and a necessity for the role player to apply a longer resting time to recover. Lastly, the strokes distribution and the percentage of unforced and forced mistakes did not show whatsoever differences throughout the OG analysis, except for the utilize of the clear. This results bear on on the way the training of Badminton players should exist designed, specially in the temporal structure and intensity.

Primal points

Badminton game has become faster, with an important increase in the shot frequency (+34%)
The constructive playing time has decreased betwixt offset to last Olympic Games (-34.5%)
The strokes distribution and the percent of unforced and forced errors evidence no differences through the OG analysis, except for the use of the clear

Primal words: Notational analysis, elite, racket sport, video analysis, shuttlecock

Introduction

Badminton is a noise sport which is characterized past a temporal structure with actions of curt duration and loftier intensity coupled with a brusque resting time, equally recently reviewed (Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003). The number of different shots used during a game tin vary a lot, allowing numerous tactical choices (Hong and Tong, 2000). This sport gathers five disciplines, including Men's and Women's singles, doubles and mixed doubles, each of them requiring a specific preparation in terms of patience, control and concrete fitness (Chen and Chen, 2008; 2011; Laffaye, 2011; Pearce, 2002). For more details, a recent review summarizes all the characteristics of this game (Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2015).

Since this sport became Olympic in Barcelona in 1992, few studies reported temporal structure at a definite moment according to the full time, working time, resting time, constructive playing time (EPT) (sum of the rally times divided by the lucifer duration multiplied past a hundred) and shot frequency (number of shots divided past the constructive playing time) (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Faude et al., 2007). During aristocracy player matches, hateful rally and rest duration revealed a loftier variability, with values respectively ranging from 4.6s to 9.0s and ix.7s to 24.1s (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Cabello and Lees, 2004; Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Chen and Chen, 2008; Faude et al., 2007; Ming et al., 2008). In the literature, the EPT ranged from 27.3 ± ii.4% (Abian-vicen et al., 2013) to 38.5 ± 3.viii% (Chen and Chen, 2011), with a hateful value of 32.i% (Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2015).

Another way to analyze matches has been recently proposed, past using a notational analysis with video recordings focusing on different kinds of shots and on the style the point is won (direct point, unforced error and forced fault) (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Hong and Tong, 2000). For instance, a recent study on the Beijing Olympic Games analysis revealed a percentage of unforced mistake at about 41.0 ± ix.4% while the all-time shot for finishing a rally past directly point is the smash (29.1 ± 8.4%) (Abian-vicen et al., 2013). In some other written report with national level players (Taiwanese players), the percentage of unforced errors increases to 61.5% suggesting that this variable depends on the expertise (Chen and Chen, 2008). Liddle et al (1996) reported that 54.0% of the shots are overheads in singles, while a few years later, another study showed that the three most popular strokes were the nail, the overhead clear and the overhead drib (Ghosh et al., 2008). However, Ming et al. (2008) showed another stroke repartition with more than clears, lobs and cyberspace shots. This suggests that the Badminton game has considerably evolved over the concluding two decades and that the notational analysis appears to be a practiced fashion to empathise this change over time.

Up to now, studies on Badminton game characteristics focused on isolated lucifer assay. The aim of this written report is to analyze the change of the Badminton in Men's singles through the notational and temporal structure of all the Olympic finals since 1992. It is hypothesized that Badminton has become more intensive with a higher number of offensive strokes. For validating this hypothesis, it is expected to observe an increase in the shot frequency, a decrease in the rest time and a change in the distribution of the strokes.

Methods

Catamenia and matches

The matches selected are the Men'southward singles finals in all Olympic Games since 1992 (Table 1). The unlike finals (1996: Atlanta (OG-96), 2000: Sydney (OG-00), 2004: Athens (OG-04), 2008: Beijing (OG-08) and 2012: London (OG-12) were recovered from the archives of French Federation of Badminton, and the final of 1992: Barcelona (OG-92) from a private recording of a Chinese television circulate. The hateful historic period of the players is 25.8 ± ii.78 years. In total, 537 rallies and 5537 strokes have been analyzed. To be more accurate as possible, we cull to study simply balanced high level matches. This was non the case for one of the semi-final during OG-00 (15-12, 15-4), OG-04 (15-9, 15-2) and OG-12 (21-12, 21-ten). Consequently, we analyzed merely finals from OG-92 to OG-12.

Table i.

Badminton final Men's singles: opponents and score.

	Final score	Full duration (min)	Hateful inning duration (min)
Friction match game 15 points, prolongation at 13-13 by 2 or five points
Barcelona 1992	15 / 12 – eighteen / xiii	59	22
Atlanta 1996	fifteen / 12 – xv / ten	43	12
Match game 15 points, prolongation at 14-fourteen by 1 or 3 points
Sydney 2000	15 / 4 – 15 /13	45	14
Athena 2004	15 / 8 – 15 / 7	42	12
Match game for 21 points
Beijing 2008	21 / 12 – 21 / 08	39	10
London 2012	fifteen / 21 – 21 / 10 – 21 / 19	78	18

Procedures

The study received approval from the University's ethics committee.

Video-coding process

The moving-picture show footage was analyzed frame-by-frame using Dartfish (Dartfish four.5.2, Fribourg, Switzerland) at a frequency of 25 Hz. The movements of the players were filmed from a front-on and up-side perspective. Two categories of variables were recorded:

(i) the temporal variables were defined as proposed in the literature and include the rally time (time elapsed from the serve until the shuttlecock hits the basis or 1 of the players makes a mistake), number of shots per rally (full number of times the shuttle is hit by both players during the rally time), stroke fourth dimension (rally time divided by the number of shots per rally), the shots' frequency, the resting time (the time elapsed from when the shuttlecock hits the ground until the side by side serve), the effective playing time (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Chen and Chen, 2008; Faude et al., 2007);

(two) the notational variables include the different shots and the way the betoken is ended, and are defined in the following manner: (i) the nail is an aggressive overhead shot with downward trajectory, (2) the clear is an overhead shot with a apartment (offensive clear) or ascent trajectory (defensive clear) towards the back of the opponent'due south court, (3) the drop is a smooth shot from above the head with downward trajectory towards the front of the court, (4) the cyberspace shot is a precise shot from near the net which includes the net drop, the lob (offensive with a flat trajectory towards the back of the opponent's court and defensive with a rise trajectory) and the kill (aggressive shot with downward trajectory), (five) the drive is a powerful shot fabricated at centre body height and in the center of the courtroom with a flat trajectory, (6) a directly signal is a point which ends when the shuttlecock straight hits the ground, (vii) a forced error is when the role player is under excessive pressure level from his opponent and makes an fault afterward doing his shot (which goes in the net or outside the court) and (8) an unforced error is when the thespian makes an error in an expected state of affairs without excessive pressure from the opponent (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003).

In gild to facilitate the data acquisition process and accuracy, a software using macro on Excel (Microsoft©, 2007) has been build, allowing data collection. The video has been analyzed twice: in a first analysis, the observer used the software to fourth dimension the temporal construction of the game and in the second analysis, the observer took notes on the category of the shots. For this purpose, a filigree representing the court and the unlike areas has been drawn on the software and the observer simply have to select the proper name of the shot and to start the chronometer (accuracy: ±0.01s) and finish it for each sequence of game (temporal structure).

Inter- and intra-observer validity

In society to ensure the validity of the data coding process, 2 independent observers skilful in Badminton (trainers having the qualification required by the French Federation of Badminton) accept coded the same sequence twice, allowing to measure the inter- and intra-observer validity (Triolet et al., 2013). The observers' measure out reliability has been assessed by measuring the coefficient of variation (CV %), the intraclass correlation (ICC) and a Student-T test was performed for the temporal data.

Before selecting the unlike shots, a pre-experiment had been conducted with three observers on an entire game to bank check the repeatability of the coding. Based on this feedback, we accept reduced the number of unlike shots from 8 to 5: the slice has been coded equally a driblet shot, the two different clears (defensive and offensive) have been gathered every bit 1 and the 2 unlike lobs (defensive and offensive) every bit well. With this new notational coding, the results show a high intra-course correlation (ICC = 0.99 and CV% = 0.12 for intra observer) on temporal data. For the notational assay, the inter-coder CV is 2.viii% with variations between 1.0% for the net and 5.0% for the drive while the intra-coder CV is 2.4% and with variations between 0.iv% for the cyberspace and 3.9% for the boom. This proves a meaning validity of the method used (CV< v% and ICC >eighty%) (Donner and Eliasziw, 1987).

Statistical assay

Temporal structure statistics analyze with one-way measure of the variance (ANOVA) with Fisher LSD post-hoc test using Statistica 10. Moreover, to empathise the link between variables, a uni-variated correlation report with Pearson correlation was performed. The notational analysis (the percent of stroke and errors) were analyzed with a χ²-examination by comparing the theoretical number of occurrences with a mean value to the existent number of occurrences. The nil-hypothesis is that the distribution of strokes and the number of unforced errors and directly points depend on the Olympic Games (OG). The criterion for statistical significance was set at p<0.05 and effect size (ηⁱⁱ) was divers as pocket-size (η²>0.01), medium (ηⁱⁱ>0.09) and big (η²>0.25). For post-hoc event size (Cohen's D) was divers every bit large (D>.eighty), moderate (>.l) and small (D> 20) (Cohen, 1988). 95% Confidence Interval are provided between square brackets.

Results

Temporal construction

The modify of the temporal structure has been summarized in Table 2. The ANOVA for all the studied variables shows pregnant changes in the rally time, resting fourth dimension, number of shots per rally and shot frequency.

Table two.

Alter in temporal structure of Badminton Men'south singles final during Olympic Game (OG). Information are means (±SD).

Variables	OG-92	OG-96	OG-00	OG-04	OG-08	OG-12	F	Effect size (η²)
Rest Fourth dimension (southward)	22.0 (1.5)^{^{due east},^f}	14.8(1.4)^{^a,^c,^d,^e,^f}	22.6 (1.six)^{^a,^b,^e,^f}	21.6 (one.7)^{^b,^d}	thirty.3(2.0)^{^a,^b,^c,^d}	33.5 (1.five)^{^a,^b,^c,^d}	24.4^**	.164
Rally Fourth dimension (s)	12.9 (ane.0)^{^b,^c,^d,^e,^f}	v.5(.6)^{^a,^c,^d,^east,^f}	nine.vi (.7)^{^a,^b}	8.four (.7)^{^a,^b}	9.3 (.9)^{^a,^b}	10.1 (.7)^{^a,^b}	xi.eight^**	.094
Northward° of shots per rally	12.3 (.ix)^{^b,^c,^d}	five.4 (.3)^{^a,^c,^d,^e,^f}	9.7 (.8) ^{^a,^b,^f}	9.viii (.nine) ^{^a,^b,^f}	10.viii (1.0)^{^b}	12.0 (.9)^{^b,^c,^d}	12.5^**	.100
EPT	34.7 (ane.four)^{^b,^d,^eastward,^f}	26.viii (i.2)^{^b,^f}	xxx.eight (1.5)^{^a}	26.6 (1.v)	25.three (ane.8)^{^b}	22.7 (ane.4)^{^a,^b,^c}	eight.3^**	.069
Shot frequency	.9 (.2)^{^c,^d,^eastward,^f,chiliad}	1.0 (.three)^{^a,^c,^d,^e}	ane.one (.three)^{^a,^d,^east,^f}	1.2 (.2)^{^a,^b}	one.2 (.two)^{^a,^b,^c}	ane.3 (.3)^{^a,^b,^c}	23.8^**	.175

For example, the number of shots shows a twofold increase from 12.three ± 0.9 at the OG-92 to 12.0 ± 0.9 at the OG-12 (p < 0.0001; [4.57;8.46], Cohen'south D = 0.40). The size effects are small to big for all significant postal service-hoc (from 0.three to 1.1). The rally fourth dimension and the resting time double between the OG-92 and the OG-12 respectively from 12.ix ± 1.0s to ten.1 ± 0.7s (p<0.0001; [ii.74;six.56], Cohen's D = 0.30) and 14.8 ± one.4s to 33.5 ± one.5s (p<0.0001; [14.9;22.4], Cohen's D = 0.lxx) meaning a difference in the time management with large effect size. At the same fourth dimension, the constructive playing time from 34.vii ± ane.4 % at the OG-92 to 22.7 ± 1.4 % at the OG-12 (p<0.0001; [7.9;15.9], Cohen'southward D = 0.84).

The rally fourth dimension and the resting time changes reveal meaning curvilinear fluctuations, showing that the rally time decreases between OG-92 and OG-96, so increases between OG-96 and OG-00, and stays stable until OG-08, before increasing over again (Figure i). The resting time reveals the aforementioned trend only with a shorter phase of stabilization (only between OG-00 and OG-04). In addition, we establish a significant correlation between the intensity of the exercise through the shot frequency and the resting time but after this rally (r = 0.25; p< 0.01).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is jssm-14-584-g001.jpg

Rally time distribution (3s-interval) throughout the different Olympic finals from 1992 (Barcelona) to 2012 (London) in Men's Singles

Notational analysis

The percentages of the repartition of the strokes are presented in Figure two. The χ² test revealed but a difference for the clear (χ² (v) = sixteen.5; p<0.001) with a variability from 3.0% at the OG-04 to eighteen.0% at the OG-92, while the other strokes show low and insignificant fluctuations of their values through all the OG finals. The cyberspace drop is the most used stroke (from 25.0% at the OG-92 to 35.0% at the OG-04), followed by the lob (from 23.0% at the OG-92 to 27.0% at the OG-04). The smash is used in about 10.0% to 14.0% of the strokes, whereas the drives are the less frequent (1.0% to five.0%). Finally, 36.6% of the strokes come from the back of the court and sixty.3% from the cyberspace.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is jssm-14-584-g002.jpg

Change of the distribution of various types of strokes throughout the different Olympic finals from 1992 (Barcelona) to 2012 (London) in Men's Singles, χ² pregnant for the articulate (p < 0.05)

Regarding the style the points are won, the χ² test did not reveal any changes throughout the unlike Olympic Games finals (Table 3) with an average of 36.0% for the direct points, 23.0% for the forced errors and 41.0% for the unforced errors. The forced error predicts 100.0% of the inning winner whereas the players with the nearly direct points win the inning in but 20.0% of the cases.

Table 3.

Repartition of direct points, forced and unforced errors (%) during Badminton Olympic Men'south singles Final

	Averaged	OG-92	OG-96	OG-00	OG-04	OG-08	OG-12
Direct Signal (%)	36.0	44.0	31.0	33.0	xxx.0	44.0	31.0
Forced Errors (%)	23.0	27.0	27.0	16.0	24.0	xvi.0	29.0
Unforced Errors (%)	42.0	29.0	43.0	51.0	45.0	xl.0	40.0

Give-and-take

Temporal structure

One of the main results is the increment of 34.0% in the shot frequency from the outset final to the last one, from 0.9s^-1 to 1.3s^-1. For the others temporal indicators OG-92 terminal seems to exist an exception in this change, with values comparable to the OG-04 for the resting time and college than all others for the rally time. The number of shots (5.v at the OG-96 to 10.two at the OG-12), which is an associated variable of the rally fourth dimension, increases during this flow of fourth dimension (+119.0%), except for OG-92. All the indicators used to assess the temporal structure prove a change of the game intensity during the last two decades.

Our shot frequency since OG-04 is college than those reported past previous studies [0.92-1.08 s^-i] at the same period (tabular array 4). By comparison with the literature, this indicator seems to be a key variable correlated with the level of the players: with a higher expertise level, comes a meliorate capacity to accelerate the shuttlecock trajectory. The difference could exist explained by the fact that we analyzed just the final whereas other authors mixed all the round of a tournament and especially in Beijing in 2008 (Abian-vicen et al., 2013). The number of shots per rally is in accordance with the literature, showing hateful values from four.vi to 12.vii shots per rally (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Cabello and Lees, 2004; Chen and Chen, 2008; Faude et al., 2007; Ming et al., 2008).

Tabular array 4.

Comparative results of the temporal construction in the literature of Badminton.

Variables	Author	Date	level	Condition	Results (M±SD)
Remainder Time	Cabello Manrique et al.	2003	International	Real Status	fourteen.2 ± three.4 s
	Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo	2003	International	Existent Condition	12.9 ± 2.seven due south
	Faude	2007	International	Simulated Lucifer	11.4 ± half dozen.0 s
	Ming et al	2008	Immature National	Existent Condition	nine.7 ± .2 s
	Abian-Vincen et al.	2013	Olympic Games	Existent Condition	24.1 ± iii.eight s
Rally Time	Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo	2003	International	Real Condition	half-dozen.4 ± 1.3 southward
	Cabello and Lees	2004	Top National	Real Condition	7.3 ± 1.iii due south
	Faude	2007	International	Simulated Lucifer	five.v ± 4.0 due south
	Ming et al	2008	Immature National	Real Condition	iv.6 ± .9 southward
	Chen and Chen	2008	Give-and-take Tiptop	Real Condition	eight.1 ± six.3 s
	Abian-Vincen et al.	2013	Olympic Games	Real Status	9.0 ± .9 s
Shot Frequency	Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo	2003	International	Real Condition	.ix ± .1 southward^-1
	Faude	2007	International	Imitation Match	.ix ± .3 s^-one
	Ming et al	2008	Young National	Real Condition	1.0 ± .2 s^-i
	Abian-Vincen et al	2013	Olympic Games	Existent Status	1.1 ± .ane s^-1

The resting time, which is the time necessary to recover a lower heart rate level threshold for the next rally, reveals the same change over fourth dimension (Fahimi and Vaezmousavi, 2011). Values establish are higher than in other studies (Table 4), revealing the high intensity of an Olympic final and the necessity for players to increase resting time. This intensity is reinforced by the one-third increase in the effective playing time all along this catamenia, despite a college value recorded at OG-00 (45.5% and 26.viii% respectively). Indeed, the value is about fifty.0% for national players (Cabello and Lees, 2004) and for young competitive players (Ming et al., 2008) and is only 38.0% during the OG-12 (Abian-vicen et al., 2013) with an average value of 30.viii% throughout the finals analyzed in the present report.

Notational analysis

Concerning the stroke distribution, we hypothesized differences between the different OG. The averaged distribution is 10.0% for the clear, 15.0% for the driblet, 13.0% for the boom, three.0% for the drive, 30.0% for the net drop, 25.0% for the lob and 3.0% for the kill. The statistical analysis shows that at that place is a meaning change merely for the clear, which oscillates from 3.0% in OG-04 to xviii.0% in OG-92, all the other stroke distributions existence similar along this period. When correlating this value with the mean rally time, we establish a correlation of r = 0.sixty (p<0.01), revealing that the clear is a key stroke which prolongs the rally time. This ways that the clear is used for tactical purposes, either to wait for an inaccuracy of the opponent or to leave information technology to him to have the initiative; however, it can also be used to exhaust the opponent when necessary. The aggregation of shots from a part of the court shows slight differences when compared to previous studies (Liddle et al., 1996; Ming et al., 2008; Oswald, 2006). For instance, 54.0% of the shots are overhead in singles co-ordinate to a written report of Liddle et al. (1996) and about 43.0% when looking only at top elite players according to some other (Oswald, 2006) while the present study reveals a percentage ranging from 38.0% at OG-96 to 45.0% at OG-92, which shows the importance of the net game. Our repartition is closer to the one institute in international tournaments: 39.five% of the game is played at the back of the court against 47.eight% virtually the internet (Lee et al., 2005), with a comparable percentage of strokes (Lee et al., 2008; Oswald, 2006). Indeed, when comparing to competitive young players, the percentages of smashes and lobs are quite identical (about 13.0% and 25.0% respectively) but the percentages of clears and net shots are very different (x.0% in the present study vs 16.0% for the clear, and thirty.0% in the present study vs 17.0% for the net drop) (Ming et al., 2008). This argues that the cyberspace game at peak-level is a more than important stage of game in a tactical sense to force the opponent to raise the shuttle-cock with a lift for instance.

Lastly, when analyzing the way the point is finished, no difference was found betwixt the different OG finals. 36.0% of the points are direct points, meaning the shuttlecock hits the ground, 23.0% of the points end with forced error and 41.0% with an unforced error. Hypothesizing that the pct of unforced errors decreases with the level of expertise, it is expected that the values of the nowadays study are lower compared to lower level of expertise. Indeed, in a recent study with Taiwanese players (Chen and Chen, 2011), the percentage of unforced errors is 61.five% vs 41.0% during the OG-08 (Abian-vicen et al., 2013). A study with novices revealed than in 73.0% of the cases, the player who makes the less unforced errors is the winner (Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003). This variable seems more predictive of the winner than the two others. Indeed, when analyzing the link between unforced errors and victory, in 70.0% of the case, the player who makes the less unforced errors wins the inning. The direct point, the forced and unforced errors prove no differences between OG, suggesting that these variables are constant at this level during counterbalanced matches.

Tactical changes in Badminton

Further, it seems that changes have appeared in the tactical aspects of the game with time. During this flow, two main rules take evolved: the possibility of coaching during the resting time between each point since May 2006 and how the points are counted. Nowadays, regardless of the server, 1 of the ii players marks a point at the end of each rally, assuasive a larger risk-taking. In other terms, earlier May 2006, the server could employ a smash on the lateral side line risking only to lose the serve, only after May 2006, the server lose the betoken in the same state of affairs. Information technology is interesting to annotation that these changes do not take any influence on the pct of unforced errors, which did not change all along the OG. It reflects a similar accuracy of the role player despite an increase of the game velocity and the take a chance-taking. This reveals that Badminton players have become more explosive, more authentic and more tactical.

The use of the resting time between each signal for tactical reasons is demonstrated by the alter of its correlation with the rally fourth dimension. A previous report of Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo (2003) showed a large correlation between the resting time and rally time (r = 0.87), arguing that the longer the rally, the longer the time necessary to recover the metabolic and the cardio-respiratory thresholds to engage in a new rally (Fahimi and Vaezmousavi, 2011). In our study, this correlation is much lower (r = 0.38; p<0.01), showing that the metabolic constraints is non the just reason behind the duration of this phase. We hypothesized that this difference is probably due to tactics; the resting time serves as time to think nigh the next point alone or to substitution a few words with the motorbus.

The increment of the shot frequency along the Olympic Games finals, with a like stroke distribution, reveals another tactical alter. It suggests that the trajectories used have become shorter and flatter. The player is also able to strike the shuttlecock, from a detail place of the court to another, faster today than ten years ago (Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Faude et al., 2007). Nowadays, trajectories are more ambitious and each player tries to impose his tactic during the exchange with descending trajectories to preclude attacks by a nail or a drive from the opponent. Players are probably becoming more explosive in order to increment the shot frequency (+34.0%) by calculation speed on the racquet (Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2014); or they are more visually fit to anticipate their deportation (Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2015). The change of the rally time distribution also reflects this tactical alter in Badminton (Figure 1). Previous studies reported values of rally time ranging from 78.0% to 87.0% for short rallies compared to the mean of lxx.0%, in our study (Abian-vicen et al., 2013; Cabello and Lees, 2004; Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Faude et al., 2007; Liddle et al., 1996). Indeed, xc.0% of the rallies are nether 10s at OG-96 and then this value decreases to 60.0%, 71.0%, 68.0% and 59.0% in the four following OG. The only exception is the OG-92 final, which take an atypical repartition of rally time. Moreover, at that place is a shift of the rally fourth dimension frequency to those that final more than xvi seconds from 1.0% in OG-92 to 20.0% in OG-12. This shows a tendency for a new Badminton temporal structure, in which the rhythm of the strokes increases and the duration of the rallies equally well.

Impact on the physiological demand

The present written report suggests that the game has become more intensive and consequently argues for a change in the metabolic demands on all the bioenergy systems necessitating a college resting time. This confirms the importance of a lactic likewise every bit aerobic energy production, due to the intermittent nature of this sport and the fluctuations of several physiological variables, such as centre rate, blood lactate concentration and oxygen consumption (Faude et al., 2007). A couple of studies accept promoted the aerobic profile of Badminton, with a high VO_2max (east.one thousand, 61.8 ± 5.9 ml·min^-1·kg^-1 in international men) (Faude et al., 2007) and 54.v ± 2.5 ml·min^-i·kg^-one in elite male players (Majumdar et al., 1997) and loftier percentage (89.0%) of maximum eye rate during a match (Liddle, Murph, and Bleakley 1996). The increment in the duration of the exchanges reinforces the need for the players to have aerobic contour. The increase in the resting fourth dimension supports the necessity to develop the anaerobic alactate organisation described previously (Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Carlson et al., 1985; Faude et al., 2007).

Moreover, accelerating the shuttlecock necessitates a higher muscular contraction intensity, which results in a higher recovery fourth dimension. Based on these results, it seems necessary to update the knowledge on the physiology of Badminton to better understand and manage actual and futurity training as well as tournament time.

Limitations

One limitation of the present report is that information technology is based just on the finals and not the entire tournaments. This option has been made for two main reasons:

(1): the difficulty to recollect the videos of all matches during the OG-92
(2): the fact that the rules of the qualification for the OG are based on the quota of players per land meaning that there is huge deviation of level betwixt the best countries and the weaker one. Consequently, several matches are unbalanced, even in semi-concluding (e.grand OG-00, OG-04, OG-12).

Another limitation is the modification of the rules that influence of the change of Badminton game between OG-92 - OG-04 to OG-08 - OG-12, it impacts notably on the effective playing fourth dimension.

Conclusion

To the best of our knowledge, this study was the first longitudinal report on aristocracy Badminton game. Information technology clearly showed a change of the temporal construction of the Badminton game with significant fluctuations in the rally time, resting time, number of shots per rally and an important increase in the shot frequency (+34.0%), and a decrease in the effective playing time (-34.5%). Moreover, this work showed that the notational analysis may could be very useful for coaching and training (Cabello and Lees, 2004; Cabello Manrique and González-Badillo, 2003; Chen and Chen, 2008; Hong and Tong, 2000; Ming et al., 2008; Pearce, 2002).

The showtime report finding indicates a high shot frequency, about 1.26 shots per 2nd, which is one of the characteristics of the modern Badminton, in accordance with other recent studies. That ways that this parameter has to be included in the training design to be as close as possible to the reality of a game and to be highly competitive for elite level. This could be done past using flat trajectories rather than high trajectories, specially in the game of backcourt. The second main finding of this report is the modify of the temporal structure of the game, with an increase of the remainder time and a subtract of the constructive playing fourth dimension due to the increment of the intensity of the game. The training design for a metabolic purpose has to take into account this new data, past using a ratio of working time on rest time about 1:3 with a loftier intensity of the rallies.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Fabrice Vallet, the French Federation of Badminton, for crucial comments, suggestions and for sharing the videos of OG-96 to OG-12 and Ryan Kurniawan, for sharing the video of OG-92.

Biographies

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Guillaume LAFFAYE

Employment

A PhD doctor in Sport Science in the University of Paris-Sud, in the laboratory of Complexité, Innovation et Activités Motrices et Sportives.

Research interests

The agreement of complex motor skills of elite players by identifying mechanical, anthropometrical and physiological variables to predict the operation.

Email: rf.dusp-u@eyaffal.emualliug

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Michael PHOMSOUPHA

Employment

A PhD student in Sport Science in the Academy of Paris-Sud, in the laboratory of Motor Control.

Research interests

The understanding of the performance factors in Badminton. He used for this purpose video analysis, biomechanical analysis and motion capture.

Electronic mail: rf.dusp-u@ahpuosmohp.leahcim

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Frédéric DOR

Employment

A PhD Dr. in medical field, working for a department of biomedical inquiry and epidemiology in Sport for aristocracy sportmen, in the Badminton French Federation

Enquiry interests

The epidemiology of the performance, the impact of injuries on a career

E-mail: gro.bfil@rod.cirederf

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